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====== Old Testament ======

| **Resources** |
| [[:private:old_testament:resources|Private Resources on the Old Testament (video)]] |
| {{:2009_reading_the_old_testament_graham_grove_2009_.pdf|Reading the Old Testament (G. Grove, 2009)}} |
| {{:ot303_-_apostolic_interpretation_of_the_old_testament_graham_grove_2008_.pdf|Apostolic interpretation of the Old Testament (G. Grove, 2008)}} |

The Old Testament, the first of the two sections of the Bible, is the inspired record of God’s interactions with His covenant people, Israel, prior to the coming of Jesus Christ. It is not merely a collection of ancient writings but the authoritative word of God ([[2 Timothy 3]]:<autott>2_timothy_3:16|16</autott>-<autott>2_timothy_3:17|17</autott>). It reveals the character of God, the sinfulness of humanity, and God’s unfolding plan of redemption that reaches its fulfilment in the person and work of Jesus, the Messiah (<autott>luke_24:27|Luke 24:27</autott>, <autott>luke_24:44|44</autott>).

Though written over a span of roughly one thousand years by multiple human authors, the Old Testament presents a unified message because the ultimate author is God Himself. The Old Testament books are traditionally arranged in four broad categories that include the Law, the Historical Books, Poetry and Wisdom Literature and the Prophets. Within these categories, the Old Testament covers a vast of span history, from creation itself to the return of the Jewish exiles from Babylon.

Through this history, the writers are not primarily concerned with providing exhaustive historical detail, but rather with interpreting events theologically, showing God’s sovereign hand at work in creation, covenant, judgment, and salvation. And from start to finish (Genesis to Malachi), the narrative, poetry, law, and prophecy point forward to Christ ” (<autott>2_corinthians_1:20|2 Corinthians 1:20</autott>).

===== Books of the Old Testament =====
<sub>See also: [[Torah]] | [[Historical Books]] | [[Wisdom Literature]] | [[Prophets]]</sub>

The Old Testament contains 39 books, which correspond to the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible (the difference being in how the books are grouped). In Christianity, these are traditionally arranged in four broad categories of genre: (1) The Law (Torah or Pentateuch), (2) Historical Books, (3) Poetry and Wisdom Literature, and (4) Prophets. In the Hebrew Bible, known as the Tanakh, the following arrangement is found: (1) Torah (Genesis to Deuteronomy), (2) Prophets (the Former Prophets from Joshua to Kings, and the Latter Prophets from Isaiah to Malachi), and (3) Writings (Psalms, Wisdom Books and other later writings)

==== The Law (Torah / Pentateuch) ====

The Torah contains the first five books of Bible, laying the theological foundation for the rest of Scripture.
  * [[Genesis]] – From creation to the patriarchs, highlighting God’s covenant promises to Abraham ([[Genesis 12]]:1–3)
  * [[Exodus]] – God’s redemption of His people from Egypt, the giving of the Law, and the construction of the tabernacle
  * [[Leviticus]] – Holiness and worship, with detailed sacrificial laws foreshadowing Christ’s atoning work
  * [[Numbers]] – Wilderness wanderings and God’s faithfulness despite Israel’s unbelief
  * [[Deuteronomy]] – Moses’ farewell addresses, covenant renewal, and call to obedience

==== Historical Books ====

These books tell of Israel’s national story in the land. They show the blessings of covenant faithfulness and the curses of disobedience (as noted in [[Deuteronomy 28]]). From Joshua’s conquest to Esther’s account of God’s preservation of His people in Persia, the historical books testify to God’s providence. The books include:
  * [[Joshua]] - Records Israel’s conquest of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership and the division of the land among the tribes
  * [[Judges]] - Describes cycles of Israel’s sin, oppression, repentance, and deliverance through God-appointed judges
  * [[Ruth]] - Tells the story of Ruth’s faithfulness and God’s providence in bringing her into the lineage of David and the Messiah
  * [[1 Samuel]], [[2 Samuel]] - Trace Israel’s transition from the period of the judges to the monarchy, focusing on Samuel, Saul, and King David
  * [[1 Kings]], [[2 Kings]] - Continue the history from Solomon’s reign through the divided kingdom, leading to the exiles of Israel and Judah
  * [[1 Chronicles]], [[2 Chronicles]] - Present a priestly perspective on the reigns of David, Solomon, and the kings of Judah, emphasising temple worship and covenant faithfulness
  * [[Ezra]], [[Nehemiah]] - Record the return from Babylonian exile, the rebuilding of the temple and Jerusalem’s walls, and the renewal of the covenant
  * [[Esther]] - Relates how God preserved His people in Persia through the courage of Queen Esther

==== Poetry and Wisdom ====

These books explore worship, the fear of the Lord (e.g. <autott>proverbs_1:7|Proverbs 1:7</autott>), human suffering, and the beauty of God’s design for life and give profound insights into God's character. They include:
  * Books of Poetry
    * [[Psalms]] - A collection of inspired songs and prayers expressing worship, lament, thanksgiving, and trust in God
  * Books of Wisdom
    * [[Proverbs]] - A compilation of wise sayings that teach the fear of the Lord and practical godly living
    * [[Ecclesiastes]] - A reflective exploration of life’s meaning, showing the futility of life without God and the call to fear Him
    * [[Job]] - The account of a righteous man’s suffering, revealing God’s sovereignty and the limits of human understanding
    * [[Song of Solomon]] - A poetic celebration of romantic love and marriage that also reflects God’s covenant love for His people
==== The Prophets ====

The prophets were divinely appointed as God’s covenant prosecutors. The Hebrew word for prophet is 'navi', which means spokesman, and in their words they called Israel back to obedience and announced both judgment and salvation. Preaching about the corruption of Israel they announced God's judgement, but also his future restoration. A vital cornerstone within their writings was prophecy of the coming of the Messiah (e.g. <autott>isaiah_7:14|Isaiah 7:14</autott>, [[Isaiah 9]]:<autott>isaiah_9:6|6</autott>–<autott>isaiah_9:7|7</autott>, [[Isaiah 53]], <autott>micah_5:2|Micah 5:2</autott>, and <autott>zechariah_9:9|Zechariah 9:9</autott>).

The writings of the prophets are further classified into the Major Prophets (the larger books) and the Minor Prophets (the smaller books).
  * Major Prophets
    * [[Isaiah]] - Proclaims God’s judgment on sin and promises salvation through the coming Messiah and His future kingdom
    * [[Jeremiah]] - Warns Judah of imminent exile, calls for repentance, and offers hope through God’s promise of a new covenant
    * [[Lamentations]] - A poetic lament over the destruction of Jerusalem, expressing grief and faith in God’s mercy
    * [[Ezekiel]] - Uses vivid visions and symbolic acts to announce God’s judgment on Israel and the nations, and His promise of future restoration
    * [[Daniel]] - Tells of God’s sovereignty over kings and kingdoms through narratives and visions, encouraging faithfulness in exile
  * Minor Prophets
    * [[Hosea]] - Portrays God’s steadfast love for His unfaithful people through the prophet’s own marriage
    * [[Joel]] - Calls for repentance in light of the “day of the Lord” and promises the outpouring of God’s Spirit
    * [[Amos]] - Condemns injustice and religious hypocrisy, warning of coming judgment
    * [[Obadiah]] - Pronounces judgment on Edom for its pride and hostility toward Israel
    * [[Jonah]] - Relates the prophet’s reluctant mission to Nineveh, showing God’s compassion for all nations
    * [[Micah]] - Warns of judgment for sin and foretells the Messiah’s birth and reign
    * [[Nahum]] - Declares God’s judgment on the Assyrian capital of Nineveh
    * [[Habakkuk]] - Records the prophet’s dialogue with God about injustice and affirms that the righteous shall live by faith
    * [[Zephaniah]] - Warns of the coming “day of the Lord” and promises blessing for the faithful remnant
    * [[Haggai]] - Urges the returned exiles to rebuild the Temple and trust God’s provision
    * [[Zechariah]] - Encourages the rebuilding of the Temple and points to the coming Messiah through visions and prophecies
    * [[Malachi]] - Confronts spiritual apathy and announces the coming of the Lord’s messenger

===== Old Testament History =====

The Old Testament tells the story of God interacting with his people. It is true history, recounting the lives of real people with real experiences and emotions, living in a real society. Most of this history focusses on the lands of ancient Israel and Judah. However, the history presented is not exhaustive. The biblical authors were not primarily concerned with recording every detail of every event. Whole decades, or even centuries, are sometimes passed over quickly, while other episodes are described with striking depth and precision. This selective approach reflects the authors' central aim to interpret events theologically, showing God’s sovereign hand at work in creation, covenant, judgment, and salvation. Key periods of Old Testament history are noted in the table below.

| **Approximate dates** | **Events** | ** Record** |
| Before 2,000 BC | Creation, the Fall, the Flood, Babel | Genesis 1-11 |
| 2000-1700 BC | The Patriarchs - Abraham, Isaac and Jacob | Genesis 12-50 |
| 1700-1446 BC | Slavery of Israel in Egypt | Exodus 1 |
| 1446-1406 BC | Exodus from Egypt and Desert Wanderings| Exodus to Deuteronomy |
| 1405-1050 | The Conquest and Judges | Joshua, Judges and Ruth |
| 1050-931 BC | The United Monarchy of Israel | 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronices |
| 931-722 BC | The Divided Kingdom - North Kingdom Destroyed in 722 BC | 1 and 2 Kings, 2 Chronciles |
| 722-587 BC | A Southern Kingdom Only ending with the Babylonian Exile (3 Deportations - 605, 597, 586 BC) | 2 Kings |
| 605-538 BC | An Exiled People | Daniel |
| After 538 BC | Returning to Judah and Rebuilding | Ezra and Nehemiah |

The Old Testament begins with the account of God creating the heavens and the earth, declaring all He made “very good” (<autott>genesis_1:31|Genesis 1:31</autott>). Humanity, however, rebelled against God in the Garden of Eden, bringing sin and death into the world. As sin spread, God judged the earth through the Flood in the days of Noah, yet preserved Noah’s family to repopulate the earth. At Babel, human pride again led to divine judgment, as God confused languages and scattered the nations.

From about 2000–1700 BC, God called Abram (later Abraham) to leave his homeland and promised to make his descendants into a great nation. This patriarchal period, recorded in Genesis 12–50, tells of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (renamed Israel), and God’s covenant promises of land, descendants, and blessing. Jacob’s twelve sons became the ancestors of the tribes of Israel. Joseph, one of Jacob’s sons, was sold into slavery in Egypt, but God raised him to power, preserving His people during famine and setting the stage for Israel’s later enslavement.

From 1700–1446 BC, Israel lived in Egypt, where they grew into a large nation but came under oppressive slavery. In 1446 BC, God delivered them through the Exodus under Moses, demonstrating His power in the plagues and the crossing of the Red Sea. Over the next forty years, the Israelites wandered in the wilderness due to their disobedience, receiving God’s law and the covenant at Sinai. Under Joshua’s leadership, they entered Canaan around 1406 BC, beginning the period of the Conquest and Judges, marked by cycles of faithfulness, disobedience, oppression, and deliverance.

From 1050–931 BC, Israel was united under three successive kings - Saul, David, and Solomon. David established Jerusalem as the capital, and Solomon built the Temple. After Solomon’s death, the kingdom divided: the northern kingdom of Israel lasted until the Assyrian conquest in 722 BC, while the southern kingdom of Judah endured until the Babylonian exile, beginning with deportations in 605 BC, 597 BC, and finally the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. During the exile, figures such as Daniel and Ezekiel ministered among God’s people. After Babylon fell to Persia, Cyrus allowed the Jews to return in 538 BC. The post-exilic period, recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah, saw the rebuilding of the temple and Jerusalem’s walls, as well as renewed covenant commitment under leaders like Ezra and Nehemiah.


===== Old Testament Geography =====

The land of Israel, called Canaan in Genesis and sometimes referred to as the Promised Land in the Old Testament, was situated at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe. It formed a narrow land bridge between the great empires of the ancient Near East making it a strategic prize for powerful kingdoms and a frequent battleground for armies moving between continents. 

The physical landscape of Israel varies greatly, influencing agriculture, settlement patterns, and military strategy. Four main north–south geographical zones, running parallel from west to east, can be identified:

  * Coastal Plain – A fertile strip along the Mediterranean Sea, ideal for agriculture and trade, but also vulnerable to invasion. Philistine cities such as Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod were located here.
  * Central Hill Country – A rugged interior highland containing many of Israel’s and Judah’s main cities, including Jerusalem, Hebron, Bethel, and Shechem. This region provided natural defenses but limited farmland.
  * Jordan Rift Valley – A deep geological depression containing the Jordan River, the Sea of Galilee, and the Dead Sea. The Jordan River formed a natural boundary and features prominently in biblical history )e.g., Joshua’s crossing in [[Joshua 3]]).
  * Transjordan Plateau – East of the Jordan River, this elevated region included the territories of Bashan, Gilead, and Moab. It was home to various peoples, some friendly, others hostile to Israel.

==== Surrounding Nations and Empires ====

The land of Israel was bordered by, and often subject to, powerful neighbours whose influence and invasions shaped biblical events:

  * Egypt (to the southwest) – A dominant power in the early biblical period, Egypt provided both refuge (e.g., Abraham, Joseph, the Holy Family in Matthew 2) and bondage (the Israelite slavery before the Exodus)
  * Assyria (to the northeast) – A military superpower from the 9th to 7th centuries BC, Assyria conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in 722 BC ([[2 Kings 17]]) and deported much of its population. Prophets such as Jonah, Isaiah, and Nahum addressed Assyria’s role in God’s plans
  * Babylon (further east) – Successor to Assyrian power, Babylon conquered Judah in 586 BC, destroyed the Temple, and exiled many of its people ([[2 Kings 25]]). Prophets like Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ministered in this period.

Other neighbours included Moab, Ammon, Edom, Philistia, Phoenicia, and Aram (Syria) and are frequently mentioned in the Old Testament as allies, rivals, or enemies.

==== Key Old Testament Locations ====

Certain cities and regions play recurring roles in the biblical narrative:
  * Hebron – Abraham’s home and burial site of the patriarchs ([[Genesis 23]])
  * Jericho – First city conquered in Canaan after the Jordan crossing ([[Joshua 6]])
  * Shechem – Covenant renewal site under Joshua ([[Joshua 24]])
  * Shiloh – Early location of the tabernacle (<autott>joshua_18:1|Joshua 18:1</autott>)
  * Bethlehem – Birthplace of David and later of the Messiah (<autott>micah_5:2|Micah 5:2</autott>)
  * Jerusalem – Capital of David’s kingdom, site of the Temple, and centre of later Jewish worship
  * Samaria – Capital of the northern kingdom after Omri’s reign (<autott>1_kings_16:24|1 Kings 16:24</autott>)

==== Peoples in the Land Through the Old Testament ====

When Abraham arrived in Canaan, the land was already inhabited by various peoples, including Canaanites, Amorites, Hittites, and Jebusites ([[Genesis 15]]:19–21). These groups lived in fortified towns and practiced religions often opposed to the worship of Yahweh.

After Abraham’s descendants moved to Egypt and were enslaved for about four centuries, the native populations in Canaan grew and developed. When the Israelites returned under Joshua, they fought numerous battles to take possession of the land God had promised. Over time, the territory became predominantly Israelite.

However, internal division after Solomon’s death split the nation into the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah ([[1 Kings 12]]). Both kingdoms eventually fell, Israel to Assyria (722 BC), and Judah to Babylon (586 BC), leading to the forced exile of much of the population. 

===== Major Theological Themes =====

The Old Testament is not merely a historical record but a revelation of God’s character, purposes, and redemptive plan. Throughout its pages, certain theological themes appear repeatedly, providing a framework for understanding both the Old and New Testaments. Among the most significant are:
  * The One True God (Yahweh) – The sovereign Creator and Redeemer who alone is worthy of worship (e.g. <autott>deuteronomy_6:4|Deuteronomy 6:4</autott>)
  * Covenant – God’s binding promises to His people, establishing a relationship based on His grace and faithfulness (e.g. [[Genesis 15]] and [[Exodus]] 19–24)
  * Sin and Judgment – The seriousness of rebellion against God and the inevitable consequences it brings (e.g. [[Genesis 3]] and <autott>isaiah_59:2|Isaiah 59:2</autott>)
  * Sacrifice and Atonement – The God-given means of dealing with sin, foreshadowing Christ’s substitutionary death (e.g. [[Leviticus 16]] and [[Hebrews 9]])
  * The Promised Land – Both a gift and a covenant responsibility, tied to obedience and faithfulness (e.g. [[Joshua 21]]:43–45)
  * Messianic Hope – The expectation of the coming King and Redeemer who will bring God’s salvation to His people (e.g. [[Psalm 2]] and [[Isaiah 53]])

==== The Old Testament in Light of Christ ====

Jesus affirmed the divine authority of the Old Testament (Matthew 5:17–18; John 10:35) and interpreted its message as pointing to Himself (Luke 24:27). The sacrificial system, the Davidic kingship, the prophetic hope, and the promises of a new covenant all find their fulfilment in Him (Jeremiah 31:31–34; Hebrews 8–10).

===== Other Ancient Near Eastern Literature =====

While the Old Testament is unique in its divine inspiration and complete truthfulness, other writings from the Ancient Near East, such as the Enuma Elish, the Epic of Gilgamesh and Hittite suzerainty treaties, can help us better understand the historical, cultural, and literary setting of the biblical text. These ancient documents sometimes share outward similarities with parts of the Old Testament, but such parallels serve to sharpen, rather than blur, the distinct message of Scripture. These resemblances do not undermine the authority of the Bible, instead, they highlight the radical uniqueness of Israel’s God as being holy, sovereign, personal, and faithful to his covenant promises. Where other ancient stories portray capricious gods shaped by human flaws, the Old Testament reveals the one true God, whose words are entirely trustworthy and whose saving purposes stand firm.