The Old Testament, the first of the two sections of the Bible, is the inspired record of God’s interactions with His covenant people, Israel, prior to the coming of Jesus Christ. It is not merely a collection of ancient writings but the authoritative word of God (2 Timothy 3:16plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_big2 Timothy 3:16

Greek πᾶσα γραφὴ θεόπνευστος καὶ ὠφέλιμος πρὸς διδασκαλίαν, πρὸς ἐλεγμόν, πρὸς ἐπανόρθωσιν, πρὸς παιδείαν τὴν ἐν δικαιοσύνῃ, ESV All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, NIV All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness,…-17plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_big2 Timothy 3:17

Greek ἵνα ἄρτιος ᾖ ὁ τοῦ θεοῦ ἄνθρωπος, πρὸς πᾶν ἔργον ἀγαθὸν ἐξηρτισμένος. ESV that the man of God may be competent, equipped for every good work. NIV so that the man of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work. NLT God uses it to prepare and equip his people to do every good work.). It reveals the character of God, the sinfulness of humanity, and God’s unfolding plan of redemption that reaches its fulfilment in the person and work of Jesus, the Messiah (Luke 24:27plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigLuke 24:27

Greek καὶ ἀρξάμενος ἀπὸ Μωϋσέως καὶ ἀπὸ πάντων τῶν προφητῶν διερμήνευσεν αὐτοῖς ἐν πάσαις ταῖς γραφαῖς τὰ περὶ ἑαυτοῦ. ESV And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself. NIV And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he explained to them what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself., 44plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigLuke 24:44

Greek Εἶπεν δὲ πρὸς αὐτούς· οὗτοι οἱ λόγοι μου οὓς ἐλάλησα πρὸς ὑμᾶς ἔτι ὢν σὺν ὑμῖν, ὅτι δεῖ πληρωθῆναι πάντα τὰ γεγραμμένα ἐν τῷ νόμῳ Μωϋσέως καὶ προφήταις καὶ ψαλμοῖς περὶ ἐμοῦ. ESV Then he said to them, “These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, that everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.…).

Though written over a span of roughly one thousand years by multiple human authors, the Old Testament presents a unified message because the ultimate author is God Himself. The Old Testament books are traditionally arranged in four broad categories that include the Law, the Historical Books, Poetry and Wisdom Literature and the Prophets. Within these categories, the Old Testament covers a vast of span history, from creation itself to the return of the Jewish exiles from Babylon.

Through this history, the writers are not primarily concerned with providing exhaustive historical detail, but rather with interpreting events theologically, showing God’s sovereign hand at work in creation, covenant, judgment, and salvation. And from start to finish (Genesis to Malachi), the narrative, poetry, law, and prophecy point forward to Christ ” (2 Corinthians 1:20plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_big2 Corinthians 1:20

Greek ὅσαι γὰρ ἐπαγγελίαι θεοῦ, ἐν αὐτῷ τὸ ναί· διὸ καὶ δι’ αὐτοῦ τὸ ἀμὴν τῷ θεῷ πρὸς δόξαν δι’ ἡμῶν. ESV For all the promises of God find their Yes in him. That is why it is through him that we utter our Amen to God for his glory. NIV For no matter how many promises God has made, they are “Yes).

_{See also: Torah | Historical Books | Wisdom Literature | Prophets}

The Old Testament contains 39 books, which correspond to the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible (the difference being in how the books are grouped). In Christianity, these are traditionally arranged in four broad categories of genre: (1) The Law (Torah or Pentateuch), (2) Historical Books, (3) Poetry and Wisdom Literature, and (4) Prophets. In the Hebrew Bible, known as the Tanakh, the following arrangement is found: (1) Torah (Genesis to Deuteronomy), (2) Prophets (the Former Prophets from Joshua to Kings, and the Latter Prophets from Isaiah to Malachi), and (3) Writings (Psalms, Wisdom Books and other later writings)

The Torah contains the first five books of Bible, laying the theological foundation for the rest of Scripture.

• Genesis – From creation to the patriarchs, highlighting God’s covenant promises to Abraham (Genesis 12:1–3)
• Exodus – God’s redemption of His people from Egypt, the giving of the Law, and the construction of the tabernacle
• Leviticus – Holiness and worship, with detailed sacrificial laws foreshadowing Christ’s atoning work
• Numbers – Wilderness wanderings and God’s faithfulness despite Israel’s unbelief
• Deuteronomy – Moses’ farewell addresses, covenant renewal, and call to obedience

These books tell of Israel’s national story in the land. They show the blessings of covenant faithfulness and the curses of disobedience (as noted in Deuteronomy 28). From Joshua’s conquest to Esther’s account of God’s preservation of His people in Persia, the historical books testify to God’s providence. The books include:

• Joshua - Records Israel’s conquest of Canaan under Joshua’s leadership and the division of the land among the tribes
• Judges - Describes cycles of Israel’s sin, oppression, repentance, and deliverance through God-appointed judges
• Ruth - Tells the story of Ruth’s faithfulness and God’s providence in bringing her into the lineage of David and the Messiah
• 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel - Trace Israel’s transition from the period of the judges to the monarchy, focusing on Samuel, Saul, and King David
• 1 Kings, 2 Kings - Continue the history from Solomon’s reign through the divided kingdom, leading to the exiles of Israel and Judah
• 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles - Present a priestly perspective on the reigns of David, Solomon, and the kings of Judah, emphasising temple worship and covenant faithfulness
• Ezra, Nehemiah - Record the return from Babylonian exile, the rebuilding of the temple and Jerusalem’s walls, and the renewal of the covenant
• Esther - Relates how God preserved His people in Persia through the courage of Queen Esther

These books explore worship, the fear of the Lord (e.g. Proverbs 1:7plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigProverbs 1:7

Hebrew יִרְאַ֣ת יְ֭הוָה רֵאשִׁ֣ית דָּ֑עַת חָכְמָ֥ה וּ֝מוּסָ֗ר אֱוִילִ֥ים בָּֽזוּ ESV The fear of the LORD is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction. NIV The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and discipline. NLT Fear of the LORD is the foundation of true knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and discipline. ἀρχὴσοφίαςφόβοςθεοῦσύνεσιςδὲἀγαθὴπᾶσιτοῖςποιοῦσιναὐτήνεὐσέβειαδὲεἰςθεὸνἀρχὴαἰσθήσεωςσοφίανδὲκαὶπαιδείανἀσεβεῖς…), human suffering, and the beauty of God’s design for life and give profound insights into God's character. They include:

• Books of Poetry
  • Psalms - A collection of inspired songs and prayers expressing worship, lament, thanksgiving, and trust in God
• Books of Wisdom
  • Proverbs - A compilation of wise sayings that teach the fear of the Lord and practical godly living
  • Ecclesiastes - A reflective exploration of life’s meaning, showing the futility of life without God and the call to fear Him
  • Job - The account of a righteous man’s suffering, revealing God’s sovereignty and the limits of human understanding
  • Song of Solomon - A poetic celebration of romantic love and marriage that also reflects God’s covenant love for His people

The prophets were divinely appointed as God’s covenant prosecutors. The Hebrew word for prophet is 'navi', which means spokesman, and in their words they called Israel back to obedience and announced both judgment and salvation. Preaching about the corruption of Israel they announced God's judgement, but also his future restoration. A vital cornerstone within their writings was prophecy of the coming of the Messiah (e.g. Isaiah 7:14plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigIsaiah 7:14

Hebrew לָ֠כֵן יִתֵּ֨ן אֲדֹנָ֥י ה֛וּא לָכֶ֖ם א֑וֹת הִנֵּ֣ה הָעַלְמָ֗ה הָרָה֙ וְיֹלֶ֣דֶת בֵּ֔ן וְקָרָ֥את שְׁמ֖וֹ עִמָּ֥נוּ אֵֽל ESV Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign. Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel. NIV Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign: The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel. διὰτοῦτοδώσεικύριοςαὐτὸςὑμῖνσημεῖονἰδοὺἡπαρθένοςἐνγαστρὶἕξεικαὶτέξεταιυἱόνκαὶκαλέ…, Isaiah 9:6plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigIsaiah 9:6

Hebrew לםרבה לְמַרְבֵּ֨ה הַמִּשְׂרָ֜ה וּלְשָׁל֣וֹם אֵֽין קֵ֗ץ עַל כִּסֵּ֤א דָוִד֙ וְעַל מַמְלַכְתּ֔וֹ לְהָכִ֤ין אֹתָהּ֙ וּֽלְסַעֲדָ֔הּ בְּמִשְׁפָּ֖ט וּבִצְדָקָ֑ה מֵעַתָּה֙ וְעַד עוֹלָ֔ם קִנְאַ֛ת יְהוָ֥ה צְבָא֖וֹת תַּעֲשֶׂה זֹּֽאת ESV For to us a child is born, to us a son is given; and the government shall be upon his shoulder, and his name shall be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace. ὅτιπαιδίονἐγεννήθηἡμῖνυἱὸςκαὶἐδόθηἡμῖνοὗἡἀρχὴἐπὶτοῦὤμουαὐτ…–7plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigIsaiah 9:7

Hebrew דָּבָ֛ר שָׁלַ֥ח אֲדֹנָ֖י בְּיַעֲקֹ֑ב וְנָפַ֖ל בְּיִשְׂרָאֵֽל ESV Of the increase of his government and of peace there will be no end, on the throne of David and over his kingdom, to establish it and to uphold it with justice and with righteousness from this time forth and forevermore. The zeal of the LORD of hosts will do this. μεγάληἡἀρχὴαὐτοῦκαὶτῆςεἰρήνηςαὐτοῦοὐκἔστινὅριονἐπὶτὸνθρόνονκαὶτὴνβασιλείαναὐτοῦαὐτὴνκαὶἀντιλαβέσθαιαὐτῆςἐνδικαιοσύνῃκαὶἐνκρίματιἀπὸτοῦνῦνκαὶεἰςτὸναἰῶν…, Isaiah 53, Micah 5:2plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMicah 5:2

Hebrew לָכֵ֣ן יִתְּנֵ֔ם עַד עֵ֥ת יוֹלֵדָ֖ה יָלָ֑דָה וְיֶ֣תֶר אֶחָ֔יו יְשׁוּב֖וּן עַל בְּנֵ֥י יִשְׂרָאֵֽל ESV But you, O Bethlehem Ephrathah, who are too little to be among the clans of Judah, from you shall come forth for me one who is to be ruler in Israel, whose origin is from of old, from ancient days. NIV καὶσύοἶκοςτοῦεἶτοῦεἶναιἐνχιλιάσινἐκσοῦμοιἐξελεύσεταιτοῦεἶναιεἰςἄρχονταἐντῷΙσραηλκαὶαἱἔξοδοιαὐτοῦἀπἀρχῆςἐξἡμερῶναἰῶνος…, and Zechariah 9:9plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigZechariah 9:9

Hebrew גִּילִ֨י מְאֹ֜ד בַּת צִיּ֗וֹן הָרִ֨יעִי֙ בַּ֣ת יְרוּשָׁלִַ֔ם הִנֵּ֤ה מַלְכֵּךְ֙ יָ֣בוֹא לָ֔ךְ צַדִּ֥יק וְנוֹשָׁ֖ע ה֑וּא עָנִי֙ וְרֹכֵ֣ב עַל חֲמ֔וֹר וְעַל עַ֖יִר בֶּן אֲתֹנֽוֹת ESV Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion! Shout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem! behold, your king is coming to you; righteous and having salvation is he, humble and mounted on a donkey, on a colt, the foal of a donkey. χαῖρεσφόδραθύγατερκήρυσσεθύγατερἰδοὺὁβασιλεύςσουἔρχεταίσοιδίκαιοςκαὶσῴζωναὐτόςπραῢς…).

The writings of the prophets are further classified into the Major Prophets (the larger books) and the Minor Prophets (the smaller books).

• Major Prophets
  • Isaiah - Proclaims God’s judgment on sin and promises salvation through the coming Messiah and His future kingdom
  • Jeremiah - Warns Judah of imminent exile, calls for repentance, and offers hope through God’s promise of a new covenant
  • Lamentations - A poetic lament over the destruction of Jerusalem, expressing grief and faith in God’s mercy
  • Ezekiel - Uses vivid visions and symbolic acts to announce God’s judgment on Israel and the nations, and His promise of future restoration
  • Daniel - Tells of God’s sovereignty over kings and kingdoms through narratives and visions, encouraging faithfulness in exile
• Minor Prophets
  • Hosea - Portrays God’s steadfast love for His unfaithful people through the prophet’s own marriage
  • Joel - Calls for repentance in light of the “day of the Lord” and promises the outpouring of God’s Spirit
  • Amos - Condemns injustice and religious hypocrisy, warning of coming judgment
  • Obadiah - Pronounces judgment on Edom for its pride and hostility toward Israel
  • Jonah - Relates the prophet’s reluctant mission to Nineveh, showing God’s compassion for all nations
  • Micah - Warns of judgment for sin and foretells the Messiah’s birth and reign
  • Nahum - Declares God’s judgment on the Assyrian capital of Nineveh
  • Habakkuk - Records the prophet’s dialogue with God about injustice and affirms that the righteous shall live by faith
  • Zephaniah - Warns of the coming “day of the Lord” and promises blessing for the faithful remnant
  • Haggai - Urges the returned exiles to rebuild the Temple and trust God’s provision
  • Zechariah - Encourages the rebuilding of the Temple and points to the coming Messiah through visions and prophecies
  • Malachi - Confronts spiritual apathy and announces the coming of the Lord’s messenger

The Old Testament tells the story of God interacting with his people. It is true history, recounting the lives of real people with real experiences and emotions, living in a real society. Most of this history focusses on the lands of ancient Israel and Judah. However, the history presented is not exhaustive. The biblical authors were not primarily concerned with recording every detail of every event. Whole decades, or even centuries, are sometimes passed over quickly, while other episodes are described with striking depth and precision. This selective approach reflects the authors' central aim to interpret events theologically, showing God’s sovereign hand at work in creation, covenant, judgment, and salvation. Key periods of Old Testament history are noted in the table below.

The Old Testament begins with the account of God creating the heavens and the earth, declaring all He made “very good” (Genesis 1:31plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigGenesis 1:31

Hebrew וַיַּ֤רְא אֱלֹהִים֙ אֶת כָּל אֲשֶׁ֣ר עָשָׂ֔ה וְהִנֵּה ט֖וֹב מְאֹ֑ד וַֽיְהִי עֶ֥רֶב וַֽיְהִי בֹ֖קֶר י֥וֹם הַשִּׁשִּֽׁי ESV And God saw everything that he had made, and behold, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, the sixth day. NIV God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there was evening, and there was morning-the sixth day. καὶεἶδενὁθεὸςτὰπάνταὅσαἐποίησενκαὶἰδοὺκαλὰλίανκαὶἑσπέρακαὶπρωίἡμέραἕκτη…). Humanity, however, rebelled against God in the Garden of Eden, bringing sin and death into the world. As sin spread, God judged the earth through the Flood in the days of Noah, yet preserved Noah’s family to repopulate the earth. At Babel, human pride again led to divine judgment, as God confused languages and scattered the nations.

From about 2000–1700 BC, God called Abram (later Abraham) to leave his homeland and promised to make his descendants into a great nation. This patriarchal period, recorded in Genesis 12–50, tells of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (renamed Israel), and God’s covenant promises of land, descendants, and blessing. Jacob’s twelve sons became the ancestors of the tribes of Israel. Joseph, one of Jacob’s sons, was sold into slavery in Egypt, but God raised him to power, preserving His people during famine and setting the stage for Israel’s later enslavement.

From 1700–1446 BC, Israel lived in Egypt, where they grew into a large nation but came under oppressive slavery. In 1446 BC, God delivered them through the Exodus under Moses, demonstrating His power in the plagues and the crossing of the Red Sea. Over the next forty years, the Israelites wandered in the wilderness due to their disobedience, receiving God’s law and the covenant at Sinai. Under Joshua’s leadership, they entered Canaan around 1406 BC, beginning the period of the Conquest and Judges, marked by cycles of faithfulness, disobedience, oppression, and deliverance.

From 1050–931 BC, Israel was united under three successive kings - Saul, David, and Solomon. David established Jerusalem as the capital, and Solomon built the Temple. After Solomon’s death, the kingdom divided: the northern kingdom of Israel lasted until the Assyrian conquest in 722 BC, while the southern kingdom of Judah endured until the Babylonian exile, beginning with deportations in 605 BC, 597 BC, and finally the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC. During the exile, figures such as Daniel and Ezekiel ministered among God’s people. After Babylon fell to Persia, Cyrus allowed the Jews to return in 538 BC. The post-exilic period, recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah, saw the rebuilding of the temple and Jerusalem’s walls, as well as renewed covenant commitment under leaders like Ezra and Nehemiah.

The land of Israel, called Canaan in Genesis and sometimes referred to as the Promised Land in the Old Testament, was situated at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe. It formed a narrow land bridge between the great empires of the ancient Near East making it a strategic prize for powerful kingdoms and a frequent battleground for armies moving between continents.

The physical landscape of Israel varies greatly, influencing agriculture, settlement patterns, and military strategy. Four main north–south geographical zones, running parallel from west to east, can be identified:

• Coastal Plain – A fertile strip along the Mediterranean Sea, ideal for agriculture and trade, but also vulnerable to invasion. Philistine cities such as Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod were located here.
• Central Hill Country – A rugged interior highland containing many of Israel’s and Judah’s main cities, including Jerusalem, Hebron, Bethel, and Shechem. This region provided natural defenses but limited farmland.
• Jordan Rift Valley – A deep geological depression containing the Jordan River, the Sea of Galilee, and the Dead Sea. The Jordan River formed a natural boundary and features prominently in biblical history )e.g., Joshua’s crossing in Joshua 3).
• Transjordan Plateau – East of the Jordan River, this elevated region included the territories of Bashan, Gilead, and Moab. It was home to various peoples, some friendly, others hostile to Israel.

The land of Israel was bordered by, and often subject to, powerful neighbours whose influence and invasions shaped biblical events:

• Egypt (to the southwest) – A dominant power in the early biblical period, Egypt provided both refuge (e.g., Abraham, Joseph, the Holy Family in Matthew 2) and bondage (the Israelite slavery before the Exodus)
• Assyria (to the northeast) – A military superpower from the 9th to 7th centuries BC, Assyria conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in 722 BC (2 Kings 17) and deported much of its population. Prophets such as Jonah, Isaiah, and Nahum addressed Assyria’s role in God’s plans
• Babylon (further east) – Successor to Assyrian power, Babylon conquered Judah in 586 BC, destroyed the Temple, and exiled many of its people (2 Kings 25). Prophets like Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ministered in this period.

Other neighbours included Moab, Ammon, Edom, Philistia, Phoenicia, and Aram (Syria) and are frequently mentioned in the Old Testament as allies, rivals, or enemies.

Certain cities and regions play recurring roles in the biblical narrative:

• Hebron – Abraham’s home and burial site of the patriarchs (Genesis 23)
• Jericho – First city conquered in Canaan after the Jordan crossing (Joshua 6)
• Shechem – Covenant renewal site under Joshua (Joshua 24)
• Shiloh – Early location of the tabernacle (Joshua 18:1plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigJoshua 18:1
  
  Text Hebrew וַיִּקָּ֨הֲל֜וּ כָּל עֲדַ֤ת בְּנֵֽי יִשְׂרָאֵל֙ שִׁלֹ֔ה וַיַּשְׁכִּ֥ינוּ שָׁ֖ם אֶת אֹ֣הֶל מוֹעֵ֑ד וְהָאָ֥רֶץ נִכְבְּשָׁ֖ה לִפְנֵיהֶֽם ESV Then the whole congregation of the people of Israel assembled at Shiloh and set up the tent of meeting there. The land lay subdued before them. NIV The whole assembly of the Israelites gathered at Shiloh and set up the Tent of Meeting there. The country was brought under their control, καὶπᾶσασυναγωγὴυἱῶνΙσραηλεἰςκαὶἔπηξανἐκεῖτὴνσκη…)
• Bethlehem – Birthplace of David and later of the Messiah (Micah 5:2plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigMicah 5:2
  
  Hebrew לָכֵ֣ן יִתְּנֵ֔ם עַד עֵ֥ת יוֹלֵדָ֖ה יָלָ֑דָה וְיֶ֣תֶר אֶחָ֔יו יְשׁוּב֖וּן עַל בְּנֵ֥י יִשְׂרָאֵֽל ESV But you, O Bethlehem Ephrathah, who are too little to be among the clans of Judah, from you shall come forth for me one who is to be ruler in Israel, whose origin is from of old, from ancient days. NIV καὶσύοἶκοςτοῦεἶτοῦεἶναιἐνχιλιάσινἐκσοῦμοιἐξελεύσεταιτοῦεἶναιεἰςἄρχονταἐντῷΙσραηλκαὶαἱἔξοδοιαὐτοῦἀπἀρχῆςἐξἡμερῶναἰῶνος…)
• Jerusalem – Capital of David’s kingdom, site of the Temple, and centre of later Jewish worship
• Samaria – Capital of the northern kingdom after Omri’s reign (1 Kings 16:24plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_big1 Kings 16:24
  
  Hebrew וַיִּ֜קֶן אֶת הָהָ֥ר שֹׁמְר֛וֹן מֵ֥אֶת שֶׁ֖מֶר בְּכִכְּרַ֣יִם כָּ֑סֶף וַיִּ֨בֶן֙ אֶת הָהָ֔ר וַיִּקְרָ֗א אֶת שֵׁ֤ם הָעִיר֙ אֲשֶׁ֣ר בָּנָ֔ה עַ֣ל שֶׁם שֶׁ֔מֶר אֲדֹנֵ֖י הָהָ֥ר שֹׁמְרֽוֹן ESV He bought the hill of Samaria from Shemer for two talents of silver, and he fortified the hill and called the name of the city that he built Samaria, after the name of Shemer, the owner of the hill. καὶἐκτήσατοτὸὄροςτὸπαρὰτοῦκυρίουτοῦὄρουςδύοταλάντωνἀργυρίουκαὶᾠκοδόμησεντὸὄροςκαὶτὸὄνοματοῦ…)

When Abraham arrived in Canaan, the land was already inhabited by various peoples, including Canaanites, Amorites, Hittites, and Jebusites (Genesis 15:19–21). These groups lived in fortified towns and practiced religions often opposed to the worship of Yahweh.

After Abraham’s descendants moved to Egypt and were enslaved for about four centuries, the native populations in Canaan grew and developed. When the Israelites returned under Joshua, they fought numerous battles to take possession of the land God had promised. Over time, the territory became predominantly Israelite.

However, internal division after Solomon’s death split the nation into the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah (1 Kings 12). Both kingdoms eventually fell, Israel to Assyria (722 BC), and Judah to Babylon (586 BC), leading to the forced exile of much of the population.

The Old Testament is not merely a historical record but a revelation of God’s character, purposes, and redemptive plan. Throughout its pages, certain theological themes appear repeatedly, providing a framework for understanding both the Old and New Testaments. Among the most significant are:

• The One True God (Yahweh) – The sovereign Creator and Redeemer who alone is worthy of worship (e.g. Deuteronomy 6:4plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigDeuteronomy 6:4
  
  Hebrew שְׁמַ֖ יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל יְהוָ֥ה אֱלֹהֵ֖ינוּ יְהוָ֥ה אֶחָֽ ESV “Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one. NIV Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one. NLT “Listen, O Israel! The LORD is our God, the LORD alone. LXX καὶ ταῦτα τὰ δικαιώματα καὶ τὰ κρίματα ὅσα ἐνετείλατο κύριος τοῖς υἱοῖςΙσραηλἐντῇἐρήμῳἐξελθόντωναὐτῶνἐκγῆςΑἰγύπτουἄκουεΙσραηλκύριοςὁθεὸςἡμῶνκύριοςεἷςἐστιν…)
• Covenant – God’s binding promises to His people, establishing a relationship based on His grace and faithfulness (e.g. Genesis 15 and Exodus 19–24)
• Sin and Judgment – The seriousness of rebellion against God and the inevitable consequences it brings (e.g. Genesis 3 and Isaiah 59:2plugin-autotooltip__default plugin-autotooltip_bigIsaiah 59:2
  
  Hebrew כִּ֤י אִם עֲוֺנֹֽתֵיכֶם֙ הָי֣וּ מַבְדִּלִ֔ים בֵּינֵכֶ֕ם לְבֵ֖ין אֱלֹֽהֵיכֶ֑ם וְחַטֹּֽאותֵיכֶ֗ם הִסְתִּ֧ירוּ פָנִ֛ים מִכֶּ֖ם מִשְּׁמֽוֹעַ ESV but your iniquities have made a separation between you and your God, and your sins have hidden his face from you so that he does not hear. NIV But your iniquities have separated you from your God; your sins have hidden his face from you, so that he will not hear. ἀλλὰτὰἁμαρτήματαὑμῶνδιιστῶσινἀνὰμέσονὑμῶνκαὶτοῦθεοῦκαὶδιὰτὰςἁμαρτίαςὑμῶνἀ…)
• Sacrifice and Atonement – The God-given means of dealing with sin, foreshadowing Christ’s substitutionary death (e.g. Leviticus 16 and Hebrews 9)
• The Promised Land – Both a gift and a covenant responsibility, tied to obedience and faithfulness (e.g. Joshua 21:43–45)
• Messianic Hope – The expectation of the coming King and Redeemer who will bring God’s salvation to His people (e.g. Psalm 2 and Isaiah 53)

Jesus affirmed the divine authority of the Old Testament (Matthew 5:17–18; John 10:35) and interpreted its message as pointing to Himself (Luke 24:27). The sacrificial system, the Davidic kingship, the prophetic hope, and the promises of a new covenant all find their fulfilment in Him (Jeremiah 31:31–34; Hebrews 8–10).

While the Old Testament is unique in its divine inspiration and complete truthfulness, other writings from the Ancient Near East, such as the Enuma Elish, the Epic of Gilgamesh and Hittite suzerainty treaties, can help us better understand the historical, cultural, and literary setting of the biblical text. These ancient documents sometimes share outward similarities with parts of the Old Testament, but such parallels serve to sharpen, rather than blur, the distinct message of Scripture. These resemblances do not undermine the authority of the Bible, instead, they highlight the radical uniqueness of Israel’s God as being holy, sovereign, personal, and faithful to his covenant promises. Where other ancient stories portray capricious gods shaped by human flaws, the Old Testament reveals the one true God, whose words are entirely trustworthy and whose saving purposes stand firm.